Do you believe criminologists need to take an ‘internationalist’ perspective toward criminological research on topics such as genocide and mass violence?
I believe that it will be useful for criminologists to take an “internationalist” perspective toward criminological research on the topics of genocide and mass violence, but only as a starting point to understand better the framework for why these crimes occur (and how to effectively prevent these crimes from escalating).
The Need for a Local Approach
However, I disagree that there is a one-size-fits-all approach, meaning that a more local, focused approach should be considered after using an existing theory as a baseline to consider the situational aspects, such as ideology, obedience to authority, escalating commitment, and adaptation to group norms (Harrendorf, 2014).
For example, consider two tragic genocides in recent history - the Rwandan genocide and the Holocaust. In both instances, dehumanization occurred to neutralize the killing of a certain group of people (Harendorf, 2014). Tutsis in Rwanda were labeled cockroaches by the Hutu, while Jews in Germany (and Europe) were labeled as rats by the Nazis.
However, the conditions and causes of the genocides are arguably different.
The source of conflict in Rwanda can be attributed to colonial heritage, chronic bad governance, and inadequate and conflict-generating political systems, among other factors (Shyaka, n.d ).
In Nazi Germany, a gang of Nazi criminals with deeply-embedded anti-Semitic beliefs hijacked the institutions of the government, also among other factors (Maier-Katkin et al., 2009). From here, they ruled by igniting fear and nationalism (Snyder, 2018). Although, Neubacher presents the possibility that crimes like the Holocaust are “inherently unclassifiable, as they portray a unique, incomparable and incomprehensible incident” (2006).
With this in mind, we need to consider social psychology and sociology, which lay the groundwork for criminological theories, which are key to understanding decision-making. Yet again, there is no single copy-and-paste solution to making sense of genocide (if that is possible at all).
The Role of National Culture and Local Politics
I believe that national culture and local politics have an equal, if not more significant, impact on the causes of genocide than existing criminological theories applied on an international level. These theories should be modified for the scale of the crime applied to the specific situation.
As Harrendorf suggests, a modification is necessary when considering known criminological concepts and theories, keeping an open mind that completely new approaches may need to be developed after closer assessment (2014).
An Additional Thought
Finally, I’d like to suggest that individual theories can be applied to people in power, escalating the individual theory to a state level. Consider how a drug cartel leader will have influence and command obedience over a gang motivated by his own needs. What’s to say that a highly influential political leader could not have the same influence over a desperate or unstable society?
Again, existing theories, such as rational choice theory, could be applied to this situation, triggering mass violence through the control balance theory, as an example (Karstedt et al.). A power-hungry leader develops a strategy using cost-benefit analysis, and the imbalance in power leads to mass deviant behavior.
References
- Harrendorf, S. (2014). How can criminology contribute to an explanation of international crimes? Journal of International Criminal Justice, 12(2), 231-252.
- Karstedt. S., Nyseth Brehm, H., & Frizzell, L.C. (2021). Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and Theories of Crime: Unlocking Criminology’s Potential. Annual Review of Criminology, 4, 75-97
- Maier-Katkin, D., Mears, D.P., & Bernard, T.J. (2009). Towards a criminology of crimes against humanity. Theoretical Criminology, 13(2), 227-255
- Neubacher, F. (2006). How can it happen that horrendous state crimes are perpetrated? An overview of criminological theories.
- Shyaka, A. (n.d). The Rwandant Conflict: Origin, development, exit strategies. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4746/3833.pdf;sequence=1.
- Snyder, T. (2018, June 14). How did the Nazis gain power in Germany? The New York Times. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/14/books/review/benjamin-carter-hett-death-of-democracy.html
Are there signs/indicators that genocide is being planned or systematically carried out? How can the international community reduce the crime of genocide?
History shares horrifying stories of genocide, such as the Holocaust, where Nazis planned to kill all European Jewish people, the Rwandan genocide, which targeted the minority Tutsi community, and the Bosnian genocide, which followed the aftermath of the disintegration of Yugoslavia.
While the specific circumstances in each of these genocides differ slightly, there are some common signs and indicators that suggest genocide is planned and/or systematically carried out.
What is Genocide?
The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide describes genocide as "... acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group..."
Examples of genocide include the following.
Rwandan Genocide
Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and collaborators systematically targeted Jewish people across German-occupied Europe. Approximately six million European Jews were killed. Between 491,000 - 800,000 were killed.
The Holocaust
Between 7 April and 15 July 1994, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group and moderate Hutu and Twa were killed by armed Hutu militias. Between 491,000 - 800,000 were killed.
Srebrenica Massacre
The Army of Republika Srpska executed the Srebrenica massacre, slaying Bosnian Muslim boys and men in July 1995. More than 7,000 Bosniaks were killed.
Cambodian Massacre
Khmer Rouge, under the leadership of the Communist Party of Kampuchea general secretary Pol Pot, executed a systematic persecution and killing of Cambodian citizens between April 1975 - January 1979. Approximately 1.5 to 2 million people were killed.
Understanding Genocide Using Criminological Theories
Some criminological theories offer a starting point for understanding how genocide is carried out, indicating that genocide is being planned or systemically executed. In particular, collective forms of crime, white-collar and corporate crime, and other organized crime are used to analyze genocide (Karstedt et al. 2021).
By aligning genocide with these theories, it becomes apparent that genocide crimes involve collective preparation, cooperation, and organization. On the one end, there are complex networks, organizational relationships, and hierarchies. On the other end, there are loosely based groups performing atrocities. In genocide, the state and state agencies present the former, while rebel groups, militias, and paramilitaries represent the latter (Karstedt et al., 2021).
Preventing and Reducing Genocide
Regarding the prevention or reduction of genocide crimes, an analytical assessment of the country’s availability of resources, historical tension between ethnic groups, and political manipulation should be understood as key contributing factors to genocide.
For example, the genocide in Rwanda was triggered by a combination of land and food shortages, rapid population growth, a long history of ethnic tension between the Hutu and Tutsi (and Twa), and the propaganda-fueled authoritarian rule of dominant persons (Magnarella, 2005).
Rather than focus on warning signs for individual perpetrators, state- and community-level structural risk factors are typically associated with mass atrocity and genocide (Karstedt et al. 2021). The strongest risk factor includes political upheaval and a threat to those in power.
With the above signs and indicators in mind, I’d argue that the exact moment when mass execution begins is less easy to predict or monitor as a cataclysmic event may trigger it. For example, many attribute the start of the Rwandan genocide to President Habyarimana was killed after his plane was shot down, serving as the “straw that broke the camel’s back.”
Struggles Facing the International Community
Over and above the immense resources required to intervene, the international community faces an incredibly difficult challenge in reducing the crime of genocide. Most notably, the existing political relationships in a globalized community.
As Bernard describes, “Neither public outrage nor factual evidence of extreme atrocities will motivate governments to go to war unless other interests, foreign and domestic, also dictate it (1994).
As an example, the US actively discouraged the UN Secretary Council from authorizing more robust deployment from assisting in Rwanda, which former American President Bill Clinton claims to be the biggest regret of his presidency (TRT World, 2021). With this in mind, I’d argue that a non-governmental organization, such as the United Nations, would be more effective in assessing opportunities for intervention (and judging when intervention is needed).
As a starting point, vigilance and early intervention through diplomatic discussions are avenues through which the international community can respond.
References
- Karstedt, S., Nyseth Brehm, H., & Frizzell, L. C. (2021). Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and Theories of Crime: Unlocking Criminology's Potential. Annual Review of Criminology, 4, 75-97
- Magnarella, P. J. (2005). The background and causes of the genocide in Rwanda. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 3(4), 801-822.
- Bernard, C. (1994). Rape as terror: the case of Bosnia. Terrorism and Political Violence, 6(1), 29-43.
- TRT World. (2021). What led to the genocide in Rwanda? [Video]. YouTube.Retrieved February 12, 2023, from https://youtu.be/RphYwV91MN4