China is a communist authoritarian nation. Now that they are becoming more urbanized and growing economically, they are considering the implications of crime. Let's consider the growth of crime in China, especially regarding the authoritarian rule, migration patterns, and economic globalization.
China President Xi Jinping has confirmed the importance of developing think tanks in China as the country emerges as a global superpower and embraces economic globalization. McCaffree suggests that think tanks are necessary to assess the growth of crime in China due to the “well-documented relationship between rapid urbanization, social displacement, and crime” (2018).
Interested in more? Find out more about justice systems and crimes against humanity.
Criminological Theories
Experts in the field may draw on historical records and present criminological theories when making assessments.
Anomie Theory
Most people strive to achieve goals that are prioritized by society. When an individual experiences difficulties accessing these goals, they may resort to deviant behavior (Robert Merton).
Subculture Theory
Subcultures develop to cope with particular circumstances and to resist the dominant values of society. Crime occurs due to cultural conflict between norms, particularly as the subculture's norms conflict with the laws of the larger society (Albert Cohen).
Relative Deprivation
The perception of being deprived of resources necessary to maintain the quality of life that is considered typical within a socioeconomic group (Samuel Stouffer).
Social Bonds Theory
Criminal and deviant behavior results from social bonds breaking down or weakening between law-abiding people and institutions (Travis Hirschi).
Social-Ecological Theory
Criminal behavior is amplified within the transitional zone surrounding an urban center. Here, there is a struggle for scarce urban resources as conditions of poverty, depersonalization, and social disorganization exist (Burgess and Park).
Growth of Crime in China
However, any criminology theory should be considered in alignment with the communist and authoritarian nature of China’s politics. The political climate and dictates of the Party leadership govern the law, specifying criminal behavior (Mazur, 2017). The authoritarian rule also establishes the dominant cultural norm, which is something to consider in relation to Cohen’s theory on subcultures responding to the dominant culture (Umarhathab, 2017).
In addition, the growth of crime in China should be compared to China’s history for an accurate indication of growing (or declining) crime rates rather than comparing it to records of democratic countries, such as the United States. Unfortunately, data is often manipulated in authoritarian states, which shows a skewed representation of past crime rates (McCaffree, 2018).
Political structure aside, urbanization and market expansion contribute to migration and geographical displacement as cities present themselves as “dense pockets of job opportunities.” (McCaffree, 2018).
From a sociological point of view, urbanization introduces relative deprivation, leading to higher rates of property and violent crime (McCaffree, 2018).
In Chinese culture, social bonds are described as guanxi, danwei, and shehui tuanti, and are linked to law-abiding behavior in Chinese populations (McCaffree, 2018). During mass urbanization, customary social bonds are often broken, which according to Travis Hirschi, contributes to criminal activity (McCaffree, 2018).
Economic Expansion in China
During economic expansion, there is also the development of individualism — a foreign concept in a communist society. When combined with geographic instability and income inequality, which are fundamentally driven by urbanization and expanding markets, these factors present a risk for the growth of crime in China (McCaffree, 2018).
It’s also worth noting Burgess and Park’s social-ecological theory, which suggests that criminal behavior is amplified in conditions of poverty, depersonalization, and social disorganization. In particular, the transitional zone associated with migration impacts the growth of crime (Umarhathab, 2017).
As China experiences urbanization and becomes a leader in economic globalization, criminology theories should be considered and applied. However, theories focusing on sociological factors contributing to crime should also consider how authoritarian rule controls the culture and society.
References
- Mazur, J., and Ursu, A.-E. (2017) China's Disinterested Government and the Rule of Law. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 4:376– 382. doi: 10.1002/app5.176.
- McCaffree, K. (2018). The growth of Chinese think tanks and the question of crime. East Asia, 35(1), 43-58.
- Umarhathab, S. (2017). Theoretical Criminology. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University Tirunelveli
Do you believe that the rule of law, transitional justice, and the international criminal court will prevent or reduce crime against humanity?
In theory, the rule of law, transitional justice, and the international criminal court (ICC) have the best intentions to prevent or reduce crime against humanity. Practically, their purpose is better described as holding accountability for atrocities after the event(s).
Rule of Law
At its most basic level, the rule of law is the concept that both the government and citizens know the law and obey it. The rule of law implies that the law is respected and understood by those involved.
However, when an individual commits and incites crimes against humanity, it indicates that the law is not a priority nor a concern for them.
The International Criminal Court (ICC)
The International Criminal Court (ICC) investigates and, where warranted, tries individuals charged with the gravest crimes of concern to the international community: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and the crime of aggression.
The fact that the ICC prosecutes an individual for a culture of criminality leaves the majority of the perpetrators unaccounted for with regard to the ICC. The individual that does go on trial may live with a “dark cloud” over their head, but there is a community of followers that support their ethos and instruction. In many ways, these prosecuted individuals have served as a martyr to their ill-intended mission of atrocity. This is under the assumption that the individual even faces judgment from the ICC due to the highly selective, costly, and time-consuming process.
There are additional points worth considering, such as certain countries refusing to become a state party to the Rome Statute, such as the United States, and the rumors of prejudice against developing states, prompting countries to leave the statute, such as Burundi and the Philippines.
Transnational Justice
Transitional justice refers to how societies respond to the legacies of massive and serious human rights violations. It asks some of the most difficult questions in law, politics, and the social sciences and grapples with innumerable dilemmas. Above all, transitional justice is about victims.
In contrast, the Truth and Reconciliation model as a method of transitional justice does play a role in the prevention and reduction of crimes against humanity, at least within a specific setting where the community welcomes the opportunity. For example, the TRC played a critical role in South Africa’s transitional justice after apartheid, as the social transition was already underway after the abolishment of apartheid.
Justice Systems and Crimes Against Humanity
However, without adequate follow-up and proactive accountability for the new leaders in power, there are limitations to success. In South Africa, corrupt government, ineffective governance, and sustained economic inequality hinder the nation’s development and contribute to increased racial and political tension. One could argue that continued guidance and support for a fragile country post-conflict could have better facilitated the transition of power and assisted leadership.
In this example, the TRC fulfilled a single role in a highly complex process. Some research, such as Sebake’s work on the social perception of public service corruption in South Africa, suggests that crimes against humanity continue to be prevalent in the country, albeit to a different degree.
Perhaps the potential for the rule of law, transitional justice, and the ICC to prevent atrocities will grow in scale as the ICC plays the long game, the political world becomes more intertwined, and history reveals different lessons for the international community to adapt and apply. However, as it stands, the role is more of accountability than prevention.
References
- Gideon Boas, William A. Schabas, & Michael P. Scharf. (2012). International Criminal Justice : Legitimacy and Coherence. Edward Elgar Publishing, (15)
- Sebake, B. K. (2020). Crime Against Humanity: Social Perception of Public Service Corruption in South Africa. African Journal of Development Studies, 10(3), 167-167–188. doi: https://doi.org/10.31920/2634-3649/2020/10n3a9
- Republic of the Philippines. (n.d.). International Criminal Court. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://www.icc-cpi.int/philippines
- What’s Next for Africa and the International Criminal Court | Africa Center for Strategic Studies. (2017, December 7). Africa Center for Strategic Studies. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://africacenter.org/spotlight/whats-next-africa-international-criminal-court-icc/